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In an ode printed in the second volume of the “Orpheus,” in , Purcell’s personality is thus limned:. Purcell died at the age of thirty-seven—being granted only two years more of life than Mozart and only six years more than Schubert. He is the moon of English music and his melodies are as exquisite and as silvery and as full of enamoured radiance as the tintinnabulations of the moonbeams themselves.

But unfortunately for English music this beautiful moon, who is the most nearly great of all the composers England has furnished the world, was speedily obscured in the blinding glare of the sun of English music which came shouldering up from the east, and which has not yet sunk far enough in the west to cease from dazzling the eyes of English music-makers. The story concerns the strenuous career of Alessandro Stradella, and when you read it you will not wonder that it should have made a great success as an opera, or that it gave Flotow his greatest popularity next to “Martha,” even though its conclusion was made tamely theatrical.

There are historians, sour and cynical, who have tried to contradict the truth of the life story of Stradella as Bourdelot tells it in his “Histoire de la Musique et de ses Effets,” but they cannot offer us any satisfactory substitute in its place, and without troubling to give their merely destructive complaints, and without attempting to improve upon the pompously fascinating English of old Sir John Hawkins, I will quote the story for your delectation.

Certain it is that there was a composer named Stradella, and that he was an opera composer to the Venetian Republic, as well as a frequent singer upon the stage to his own harp accompaniments. He occupies a position in musical history of some importance. The following story of his adventures is no more improbable than many a story we read in the daily newspapers—and surely no one could question the credibility of the daily newspapers.

But here is the story as Hawkins tells it. As the cook-books say, salt it to your taste. Among the many whom he had the instruction of, was one, a young lady of a noble family of Rome, named Hortensia, who, notwithstanding her illustrious descent, submitted to live in a criminal intimacy with a Venetian nobleman.

The frequent access of Stradella to this lady, and the many opportunities he had of being alone with her, produced in them both such an affection for each other, that they agreed to go off together for Rome.

In consequence of this resolution they embarked in a very fine night, and by the favour of the wind effected their escape. Being arrived at Naples, the assassins received intelligence that those whom they were in pursuit of were at Rome, where the lady passed as the wife of Stradella. Upon this they determined to execute their commission, wrote to their employer, requesting letters of recommendation to the Venetian embassador at Rome, in order to secure an asylum for them to fly to, as soon as the deed should be perpetrated.

They failed not to be present at the performance, and had concerted to follow Stradella and his mistress out of the church, and, seizing a convenient opportunity, to make the blow. The performance was now begun, and these men had nothing to do but to watch the motions of Stradella, and attend to the music, which they had scarce begun to hear, before the suggestions of humanity began to operate upon their minds; they were seized with remorse, and reflected with horror on the thought of depriving of his life a man capable of giving to his auditors such pleasure as they had just then felt.

The assassins being returned to Venice, reported to their employer that Stradella and Hortensia had fled from Rome, and taken shelter in the city of Turin, a place where the laws were very severe, and which, excepting the houses of embassadors, afforded no protection for murderers; they represented to him the difficulty of getting these two persons assassinated, and, for their own parts, notwithstanding their engagements, declined the enterprise.

This disappointment, instead of allaying, served to sharpen the resentment of the Venetian: he had found means to attach to his interest the father of Hortensia, and, by various arguments, to inspire him with a resolution to become the murderer of his own daughter. With this old man, no less malevolent and vindictive than himself, the Venetian associated two ruffians, and dispatched them all three to Turin, fully inspired with a resolution of stabbing Stradella and the old man’s daughter wherever they found them.

The Venetian also furnished them with letters from Mons. The purport of these letters was a recommendation of the bearers of them, who were therein represented to be merchants, to the protection of the embassador, if at any time they should stand in need of it. In a situation of such security as this seemed to be, Stradella’s fears for the safety of himself and his mistress began to abate, till one evening, walking for the air upon the ramparts of the city, he was set upon by the three assassins above mentioned, that is to say, the father of Hortensia, and the two ruffians, who each gave him a stab with a dagger in the breast, and immediately betook themselves to the house of the French embassador as to a sanctuary.

The embassador insisting on the privileges which those of his function claimed from the law of nations, refused to deliver them up. In the interim Stradella was cured of his wounds, and the Marquis de Villars, to make short of the question about privilege, and the rights of embassadors, suffered the assassins to escape.

A year was elapsed after the cure of his wounds; no fresh disturbance had been given to him, and he thought himself secure from any further attempts on his life. The duchess regent, who was concerned for the honour of her sex, and the happiness of two persons who had suffered so much, and seemed to have been born for each other, joined the hands of Stradella and his beloved Hortensia, and they were married. Stradella and his wife, it is true, reached Genoa, but the morning after their arrival these three execrable villains rushed into their chamber, and stabbed each to the heart.

The murderers had taken care to secure a bark which lay in the port; to this they retreated, and made their escape from justice, and were never heard of more. Berenclow says that when the report of Stradella’s assassination reached the ears of Purcell, and he was informed jealousy was the motive to it, he lamented his fate exceedingly; and, in regard of his great merit as a musician, said he could have forgiven him any injury in that kind; which, adds the relater, ‘those who remember how lovingly Mr.

Purcell lived with his wife, or rather what a loving wife she proved to him, may understand without farther explication. Almost exactly a century before Purcell died in England, there died in Italy, at Rome, a composer who has made his birthplace immortal, though his own name has almost been lost to public recognition in the process.

That is the man whose name in English would be John Peter Lewis, or as his father called him, Giovanni Pier Luigi, who was born at Palestrina, at some date between and , and who died in the fulness of his fame February 2, , when Shakespeare was thirty years old, and was, it seems, just getting into print for the first time. The man whom all posterity knows by the name of his birthplace, as Palestrina, was the greatest composer the Catholic Church ever had.

He was a younger contemporary of Willaert’s, but was born an Italian. And all his glory belongs to Italy. Of his youth nothing is known. He first appears as the organist and director at the chief church in Palestrina from to Of his early love-making nothing is known; it is only certain that he married young, and it would seem very happily.

Yet this marriage brought him the greatest shock of his life. His wife’s name was Lucrezia, “his equal and an honest damsel” donzella onesta e sua para , according to the biographer Baini, who adds:. And so they passed together, these two faithful consorts, nearly thirty years. Lucrezia bore him four children, all sons, Angelo, Ridolfo, Silla, and Igino. The first three died in early manhood, after showing themselves in some sort heirs of their father’s genius: in the second book of his motets Palestrina has included some of their compositions.

The last son, Igino, outlived his parents and his own welfare; he was ” un’ anima disarmonica” After his father’s death he attempted to complete and market an unfinished and rejected composition of his father’s, but he was legally restrained. He lost some of his father’s unpublished works, while certain noddings of genius, better lost, and refused even by the Pope, Palestrina dedicated them to, still remain, with a dedication to yet another Pope, put on them by the scapegrace Igino.

A certain writer Pitoni, by a bit of careless reading, multiplied Palestrina’s wives by two, and divided his sons by the same number, claiming that Lucrezia, the first wife of Palestrina, was the mother of Angelo, that after her death he married one Doralice, and that she was the mother of Igino.

But Baini exposes Pitoni’s carelessness, proves the existence of Ridolfo and Silla by the inclusion of their works in the father’s book, and shows that Doralice was the wife of Palestrina’s son Angelo. It being established, then, that Palestrina was married but once, and it being assumed that he was happily married, it is strange to see how this happy marriage came near proving fatal to him.

Palestrina, who was, like Michelangelo, intimate with various Popes, dedicated in his first printed book of masses to Pope Julius III. As a reward, the careless pontiff made him one of the singers of his Sistine Chapel, omitting the usual severe examination, and overlooking as a small matter the fact that Palestrina was so far from being a priest that he was very much married and very much the father, and furthermore had no voice.

But Palestrina resigned his post as maestro at Saint Peter’s and entered the chapel. The Pope died shortly afterward and was succeeded by a cardinal who was a patron of Palestrina’s and continued his favour as Pope Marcellus II. Three weeks later this Pope also died, and was followed by Paul IV. Unfortunately for Palestrina, the new Pope was a strict constructionist, and he found it “indecent that there should be married men ammogliati interfering in holy offices.

This was on the 30th of July, , just six months after Palestrina had resigned his important post at Saint Peter’s. He was a young man with a family, and apparently keenly sensitive, for when this sonorous thunderbolt was launched at his head, he immediately fell ill of a fever and came nigh to death. But he recovered, and two months later found another post as canon of the Lateran, of which by the 1st of October, , he was maestro. Eleven years later, a year after he had written his immortal Improperia, we find him begging on account of the needs of his family to be given an increase of salary, or the acceptance of his resignation.

They gave him the acceptance. Again he found another post, and ten years later was back again as maestro of the Vatican after his many wanderings and vicissitudes.

In the meanwhile he had written his famous mass named after his old friend, Pope Marcellus II. The ten years between and had marked an epoch not merely in the life of Palestrina, but in the history of religious music. The reform Palestrina undertook, or was entrusted with, was the ending of the old scandal brought upon the Church by the elaborate lengths to which contrapuntal composers had gone in using popular melodies, and often even street songs of an obscene nature, as a foundation melody or cantus firmus for their vocal gymnastics.

The churchmen of that day did in a more elaborate fashion what Wesley did in his day and the Salvation Army in ours for the popular ballad of the streets. The trouble was that many of the congregation would think only of the original words of these catchy tunes, and in the general uproar some of the priests would sing the actual texts, thinking that the people would not hear them, and forgetting that they were supposed to be for an all-hearing ear.

I find an interesting example of this custom in the career of a musician, a contemporary of Palestrina’s mentioned by Van der Straeten; his name was Ambrosio de Cotes. He was the Maestro de Capilla of the King’s Chapel at Grenada; he was of either Flemish or English birth, and, though he was a churchman, was a gambler and drunkard; he kept a mistress, who ought to have been pretty to fit her pretty name, Juana de Espinosa.

Besides, De Cotes caroused miscellaneously, he ran the streets at night, in bad company, and singing bad songs. In he was officially reproved for these habits, and for singing improper words to sacred music y cantan muchos rezes letras profanas, yndecentes.

So great was the scandal throughout the whole world of church music that contrapuntal music came near being abandoned entirely. It was given a last chance in a proposition to Palestrina to see if it were worthy and capable of redemption. He composed three masses, and the third of them, dedicated to the memory of Pope Marcellus II.

Some years later, at the very height of his glory, Palestrina’s heart suffered its final blow. In the words of Baini, “Lucrezia, la sua dolce consorte , after having piously accompanied the solemn procession for the transport of the body of Saint Gregory Nazianzeno from the church of the monks of S. Maria Campa Marzo to the Vatican the fourth of June, , was assailed by a most oppressive malady.

The attentions of her husband and the remedies of the medical art of that day kept her alive up to the first of July. Then the sickness began anew and “neither the tears nor the voice of the loving companion prevailed against the inexorable scythe of death. The next day her body was received at the Vatican, Giovanni watching in the schoolroom of the chapel. It is easy to picture the wild grief of this man, whom a previous anxiety had thrown into an almost mortal fever. Yet he lived fourteen busy years, and in his old age he felt both fatigue and want, and was compelled to join the long list of those musicians who have appealed to their patrons for charity.

But at least his life, like Bach’s and that of many another, had proved that marriage is not always and necessarily a failure when set to music. The genealogy of the Bachs shows them to have been in the habit of marrying at least two or three times apiece, and of being very prolific. They were astonishingly alike in mind and manner and mien.

They suffered the same disorders and died nearly together. Their wives, it is said— horresco referens! Christoph was sued for breach of promise by a girl whom he said he had discussed matrimony with and exchanged rings with, but tired of. The Consistory ordered him to marry her, but he appealed to a higher court and was absolved from the tenacious woman whom he said he “hated so that he could not bear the sight of her.

The great Bach, Johann Sebastian, was the youngest of six children. His mother died when he was nine years old, but with Bachic haste his father remarried; the new wife was a widow and seemed to be in the habit of it, for she buried J.

Ambrosius two months after the wedding. The boy Sebastian was put in charge of an uncle. He had been given four weeks’ leave and took sixteen.

He was severely reproved for this by the Consistory; and the reproof is in existence still. While they were about it, they reproved him for his wild modulations and variations, also for having played too long interludes, and then, when rebuked, playing them too short.

He was given eight days to answer, and waited eight months. Then they remonstrated with him mildly again, adding, that they “furthermore remonstrate with him on his having latterly allowed the stranger maiden to show herself and to make music in the choir. Further explanation we have none. Spitta speculates on the identity of this “stranger maiden.

She might have been a professional from the Brunswick opera. But Spitta decides that it must have been Maria Barbara Bach, his cousin from a neighbouring town. She is known to have had relatives and friends in Arnstadt, and Bach married her a year later. Assuming this to be true, Spitta notes that a delightful episode in the courtship of the young couple is disclosed to our view. Perhaps, too, when Bach “spoke to the parson,” he confessed his love and his betrothal.

Further Spitta comments: “The plan on which Bach wished to found his own family shows how he, too, was filled with that patriarchal feeling by which his race was distinguished and brought to such flourishing conditions. Without straying into foreign circles he found, in a relation who bore his name, the person whom he felt to be the most certain of understanding him.

If we must call it a coincidence, it is, at any rate, a remarkable one, that Sebastian, in whom the gifts of his race reached their highest perfection, should also be the only one of its members to take a Bach to wife. If we are right in regarding the marriage union of individuals from families not allied in blood as the cause of a stronger growth of development in the children, Bach’s choice may signify that in him the highest summit of a development had been reached, so that his instinct disdained the natural way of attempting further improvement, and attracted him to his own race.

His second wife, indeed, was not allied with him in blood, but that with the first he found, in some respects, his more natural development may perhaps be concluded from the fact that the most remarkable of his sons were all the children of his first marriage.

Upton says that Bach loved Maria Barbara when he was only eighteen and they agreed to wait till he got a better post. It was on October 17, , that, according to the record, “the respectable Herr J. Bach, the surviving lawful son of the late most respectable Herr Ambrosius Bach, the famous town-organist and musician of Eisenach, was married to the virtuous maiden Maria Barbara Bach, the youngest surviving unmarried daughter of the late very respectable and famous artist Herr Johann Michael Bach.

But it is small wonder that we find Bach sighing later: “Modest as is my way of life, with the payment of house-rent and other indispensable articles of consumption, I can with difficulty live. In he went to Carlsbad with his prince.

When he returned to the bosom of his family, he found that his wife was not only dead, but buried. Spitta imagines his grief as he stood over the grave of the woman who had followed him from humility to success and had not been able to wish him a last Godspeed. She had borne him seven children, three of whom died; of the sons were Wilhelm Friedemann, the father’s favourite, and Karl Philipp Emanuel, whom the world long preferred to Sebastian himself, and whom later times spitefully underrate.

The shock of coming home to his dead wife did not annul Bach’s powers, and his next cantata with the suggestive title, “He that exalteth himself shall be abased,” shows a larger grasp of resource and power.

In the same year he made a sensation by his playing in Hamburg, winning the high praise of the eminent organist Reinken whom by the way Mattheson accused of being “a constant admirer of the fair sex, and much addicted to the wine-cellar of the Council”. For all they may say of the superior genius of Bach’s first wife’s children, it was in his second wife that he seems to have found his more congenial and appreciative helpmeet.

Bach’s father had remarried after seven months of widowering, and lived two months longer. Bach waited from July 7, , to December 3, , and he lived nearly thirty years more. His new wife bore him thirteen children, six of them sons, none of whom were remarkable musically, though their mother was more musical than the mother of Bach’s first children.

Perhaps the newcomers thought it time to take the name out of the rut. She was twenty-one years old while Bach was thirty-six. They were betrothed as early as September, , and together stood sponsor to the child of the prince’s cellar-clerk.

The wedding took place at Bach’s own house. The new wife was very musical, a gifted singer and a devoted student. She made the Bach home a little musical circle. It is evident that she kept up her singing, for October 28, , he wrote of his family, “They are one and all born musicians, and I can assure you that I can already form a concert, both vocal and instrumental, of my own family, particularly as my present wife sings a very clear soprano and my eldest daughter joins in bravely.

Soon after the marriage Sebastian and Anna started to keep a musical book together. Her name appears in her own hand, then her husband’s cheery note that it was ” Anti-Calvinismus and Anti-Melancholicus.

There are arias written apparently for Anna Magdalena, and when in an unusually domestic humour he wrote in a song, “Edifying Reflections of a Smoker” in D minor, she transposed it up to G minor in her own hand—doubtless that she might sing it to him while he puffed contentment in uxorious ease. Later on is a wedding-poem, gallantly beginning,. There are rules he wrote out for her instruction in thorough-bass with a note that others must be taught orally, and there is a love-song for soprano, which he must have written for her, to judge from the words, “Willst du dein Herz mir schenken.

A portrait of this ideal wife was painted by Cristofori and passed into the keeping of her stepson, Karl Philipp Emanuel Bach, but alas, it is lost while so many a less interesting face is repeated in endless pictures.

Twenty-eight years after her marriage this faithful woman stood by her husband’s side in his blindness and through the two operations by the English surgeon in Leipzig. How must she have rejoiced when on July 18, , he suddenly found that he could see and endure with delight the blessed sunshine!

How her heart must have sunk when a few hours later he was stricken with apoplexy and a high fever that gave him only ten more days of life! At his death-bed stood his wife, his daughters, his youngest son, a pupil, and a son-in-law.

An old chorale of his was, as Spitta says, “floating in his soul, and he wanted to complete and perfect it. The preacher said he had “fallen calmly and blessedly asleep in God,” and he was buried in St. Thomas’ churchyard; but later the grave was lost sight of, and his bones are now as unhonoured as his memory is revered. It is a dismal task to write the epilogue to the beautiful life and death of this father of music.

The woman who had made his life so happy and aided him with hand and voice and heart,—what had she done to deserve the dingy aftermath of her fidelity? Her husband’s salary was continued half a year longer, but the sons all went away to other towns, some of them to considerable success. The mother and three daughters were left to shift for themselves. Two years later they must sell a few musical remains and the town must aid them out of its funds. In the winter ten years after her husband’s death, on Feb.

Her only mourners were her daughters and a fourth of the public school children, who were forced by the custom of the day to follow to the grave the body of the very poor. In Bach’s daughter Regina was still living, a “good old woman,” who would have starved had there not been a public subscription, to which Beethoven contributed the proceeds of a composition.

Gradually the name and fame of Johann Sebastian Bach were obliterated almost from man’s memory. Half a century of oblivion was followed by the great revival and the apotheosis of his genius. In that apotheosis some radiance must always be vouchsafed the sweet memory of her to whom he owed so much of his life’s delight and his art’s inspiration, to whom also he dedicated his life and his music—Anna Magdalena.

Another called him a Moor. And two others could not endure him at all. He was undersized and slender as well; and his legs were so very short that they hardly reached the ground. His nose was long and beaked and disfigured, with nostrils of different shape, and he was undershot like a bulldog, and unusually pitted with smallpox even for those ante-vaccination days, when it was the ordinary thing to show the marks of this plague.

He always wore a wig, too; beginning when he was a child of six, “for the sake of cleanliness”! This does not read like the portrait of a man particularly successful in his love affairs. It does not certainly read like a description of the hero of a novel written by The Duchess or even by Miss Jane Austen. Everybody knows the story of the early life of Joseph Haydn, one of the twelve children of a journeyman wheelwright, and throughout his youth a shuttlecock of ill treatment and contempt.

Love seems to have reached his heart at a late day but with compensating suddenness. It is nearly incredible that a man whose after life was so heart-busy should not have felt the tender passion till he was nearly thirty, but stranger things have happened, and the anecdote given by his friend Griesinger of his wild agitation when at the age of twenty-seven he was accompanying a young countess, and her neckerchief became disarranged for a moment, would seem to indicate a remarkably unsophisticated nature.

A year later he found himself somewhat relieved of the burden of poverty that had always hampered him, and he remembered him of the two daughters of a Viennese wig-maker named Keller.

Keller had frequently been kind to Haydn, and the younger daughter seems to have inspired him with an ardent love, but she took the veil. Elise Polko has worked up an elaborate fiction on this affair with her usual saccharinity. When the convent closed the younger Keller from the world, her father ingeniously suggested to Haydn that he might marry the elder sister. As Louis Nohl says, “Whatever may have been the reason, gratitude, ignorance, helplessness in practical matters, or wish to have a wife at once—whatever may have been the motive, he married, and sorely suffered for it.

Anna Keller was older than Haydn, and the family religiousness that led the younger daughter to enter the convent, led Anna to contribute more of money to the Church, of food and society to the churchmen, and of her husband’s compositions to the choir, than even so pious a Catholic as Haydn could afford or endure.

An account of the married life of these two is given by Haydn’s friend Carpani, which incidentally brings up a bit of literary thievery of unusual quaintness. Carpani wrote his “Le Haydine” in the form of letters from Vienna; they were published in Milan. Some time after one Marie Henri Beyle published in Paris what purported to be an original series of “Letters written from Vienna. Carpani exposed the theft, but a little later the imperturbable Beyle published a second edition of his work under the name De Stendhal.

An English translation from the French work is commonly seen, though never with credit to Carpani. Carpani, in his account of the home life of the Haydns, says they were happy for a honeymoon. Anna turned the knot to a chain, the bliss to torment, and affairs went so far that, after suffering many years, this new Socrates ended by separating from his Xantippe. Anna was not pretty, nor yet ugly.

Her manners were immaculate, but she had a wooden head, and when she had fixed on a caprice, there was no way to change it. The woman loved her husband but was not congenial. An excess of religious piety badly directed came to disturb this happy harmony.

Anna wanted the house always full of priests, to whom she furnished good dinners, suppers, and luncheons. Haydn was a bit economical; but rather for cause than desire. At this time he had hardly enough to live on discreetly, and he began to look with evil eye on this endless procession of holy grasshoppers locuste who ravaged his larder.

Nor was it appropriate to the house of a studious man, this ceaseless clatter of a numerous, genial, and lazy society; therefore, solidly religious as he was, he could not enjoy these sacred repasts and he had to close the door of the refectory.

Anna had a religious brother. Haydn couldn’t keep him from visiting his sister. Haydn’s convent was not depopulated. Nor did the demands decrease. Every now and then Mrs. Anna had a new request; to-day a responsory, to-morrow a motet, the day after a mass, then hymns, then psalms, then antiphons; and all gratis. If her husband declined to write them, there appeared on the scene the great confederates of capricious women; the effects of hysteria, spleen gli insulti di stomaco , spasms; then shrieks, then criminations, weepings, quarrels, and bad humour unceasing.

Haydn ended with having to appease the woman, to lose his point, and pay the doctor and the druggist to boot. He had always drouth in his purse and despair in his mind. It is a true miracle that a genius in such a contrast could create the wonderful works that all the world knows. This friendship, rousing jealous suspicions in the mind of Mrs. Anna, ended by rendering her unendurable. The hostile fates willed that no fruit should be borne of Haydn’s marriage. The pair ceased to live together, and only that sacramental knot remained indissoluble and strong, which Haydn had contracted at the age of twenty-seven.

Anna lived to seventy years on a sufficient pension which her husband faithfully paid, and she died in These vicissitudes in great part explain why Haydn, though he earned much, could not for a long while put aside a penny and make himself a little ease. It is not a pretty picture that Carpani draws of this home life, and Anna is made out to be far from a lovable creature. She is compared to the patron saint of shrews, Xantippe. But even Xantippe had her side of the story to tell; and with all possible admiration for that man Socrates, of such godlike wisdom and such great heart, it must be remembered that Socrates had many habits which would not only cause ostracism from society to-day, but would have tried the temper of even such a wife as the meek Griselda of Chaucer’s poem.

We constantly meet these husbands who are seemingly rich in geniality and yet are mysteriously unhappy at home. It is the custom of the acquaintances of these fellows to put all the blame on the wife.

But there is a distinct type of mind which always enjoys dining abroad and appreciates a few herbs in a stranger’s house more than a stalled ox at home.

These people are gentle and genial and tender only out-of-doors. You might call them extra-mural saints. I have a strong suspicion that Haydn, who was so dear and good a soul that he was commonly called “Papa” by his friends and disciples, was one of the souls that shrivel up inside the house.

In any case he can never be forgiven for publishing his domestic miseries as he did. He talked inexcusably to his friends about his wife; he complained everywhere of her extravagances and of her quarrelsomeness. When Griesinger wished to make Haydn’s wife a present, Haydn forbade him, saying:. It is little matter to her whether her husband is an artist or a cobbler. As he passed in front of a picture of her once, he seized the violinist Baillot by the arm, and pointing to the picture said, “That is my wife.

Many a time she has maddened me. There will sometime be an end of this torment. Louis Nohl speaks of this as written in a gentle and almost sorrowful tone! As his biographers find gentleness in such writing, it is easy to see why Mrs. Haydn has had few defenders. Heaven forbid that I should be considered as throwing all the blame for the unhappiness upon the husband.

Anna Keller had a remarkably long and sharp tongue whose power she did not neglect; she once complained to her husband that there was not money enough in the house to bury him in case he died suddenly. He pointed to a series of canons which he had written and framed. Haydn bought it later for himself, and lived in it several years as a widower.

Carpani in his thirteenth letter draws a pleasant picture of Haydn’s life with his mistress Boselli, and incidentally describes how various composers composed: Gluck with his piano in a summer meadow and the bottled sunshine of Champagne on each side; Sarti in a dark room at night with a funereal lamp pendant from the ceiling; Salieri in the streets eating sweets; Paer while joking with his friends, gossiping on a thousand things, scolding his servants, quarrelling with his wife and children and petting his dog; Cimarosa in the midst of noisy friends; Sacchini with his sweetheart at his side and his kittens playing on the floor about him; Paesiello in bed; Zingarelli after reading the holy fathers or a classic; Anfossi in the midst of roast capons, steaming sausages, gammons of bacon and ragouts.

When he returned among mortals, Boselli and his friends divided his time. For thirty years he led this life, monotona ma dolcissima , not knowing his growing fame nor dreaming of leaving Eisenstadt, save when he mused on Italy. Then Boselli died and he began to feel the ennui le noje of a void in his days. It was then that he went to London. The pleasant legend Carpani gives of Haydn’s life with this woman, undisturbed by ambition until her death, is as much upset by later writers as is the spelling of her name.

She was the wife of Anton Polzelli, an insignificant and sickly violinist, with whom she was apparently not in love. Luigia is pictured—doubtless by guesswork—as not beautiful, but of a pleasing appearance, showing the indications of her Italian birth in “her small slim face, her dark complexion, her black eyes, her chestnut-coloured hair; her body of medium height and elegant form. Polzelli was in the same position as he: she lived unhappily with her spouse. Whether she honestly returned Haydn’s love cannot be known.

Facts hint that she often abused and took advantage of his good nature. But for all that she beautified his life, so often joyless, by the tenderness which she awoke in him; and the woman who throughout twenty years could do that, deserved well of the man whose friend she was; and she earns our consideration and sympathy besides.

From London the master wrote her the tenderest letters. Both, as their correspondence shows, only postponed their union, till the day when ‘four eyes shall be closed,’. Yet Haydn never ceased to provide for his friend, as well as to care for the education and the success of her sons.

The elder, Pietro, Haydn’s favourite, on whom he hung with his whole heart, died early. Pohl is somewhat fuller upon this alliance than Schmidt, who, in fact, merely condenses and paraphrases him. She earned the same salary as her husband, gulden a year.

When increasing fame took Haydn by the hand and led him away to royal triumphs in London, he did not take jealousy along with his other luggage. He seems to have heard that his place was promptly filled in Polzelli’s heart, but with all his geniality, he could write of the rumoured rival as “this man, whose name I do not know, but who is to be so happy as to possess thee. When some one in London told him that Polzelli had sold the piano he had given her, he could not believe it, and only wrote her, “See how they tease me about you” vedi come mi seccano per via di te.

Still less will he believe that she has spoken ill of him, and he writes:. Be careful for thy good name, I beg thee, and think often of thy Haydn, who cherishes and tenderly loves thee and to thee will always be true. Even to Bologna, whither Polzelli went with her two sons, says Pohl, “followed Haydn’s love—and his gold. Yet have patience. Surely the day will come when I can show thee how much I love thee. Loisa’s choice of a spouse had been unhappy, as so many marriages have been where the wife is a singer on the stage, and the husband a fiddler in the band.

Haydn seems to have sympathised with Loisa in her unhappy domestic affairs, as cordially as she had sympathised with him in his. He had sympathy, too, for her similarly ill-matched sister, Christine Negri, for he writes of her as—.

Also in March, , he wrote Loisa about her husband in a manner implying that he was a brute or a maniac: “Thou hast done well to have him taken to the hospital to save thy life. I tell thee that Providence has managed well in freeing thee from thy heavy burden, for it is better to be in the other world, than useless in this one.

The poor fellow has suffered enough. Already two eyes are closed. But the other two—ah, well, as God wills! The lovers at last were both single. But now, freed of their shackles, why do they not rush to each other’s arms? The only answer we receive is this chill and shocking document found long after Haydn’s death; it is written in Italian and dated shortly after Frau Haydn’s death:.

Valid before every court. I sign myself,. On this sad and icy postscript to the ardent love affair, Schmidt comments: “The form of this writing leaves the conclusion plain, that Haydn was forced to this act by the Polzelli.

This throws a poor light on her character, and we dare not evade the conclusion that, for twenty years in this love affair for life, she had in mind a business arrangement with the master. Thus cynically writes Schmidt of the woman who for a score of years occupied Haydn’s affections. And all of the biographers are inclined to heap upon her more or less contempt; but as you shall see a little later, the genial master himself was not above reproach, and Loisa’s anxiety was not unfounded, for her Joseph was casting amorous glances elsewhere.

Thus after the long ardour, the love letters have frozen into a hard and fast negative betrothal in which Haydn promises to marry no one else. This, Schmidt says, was dragged out of Haydn.

But, if such a bond were necessary, it speaks surely as ill for Haydn as for the woman who had given her life and her good name to brighten his joyless heart. Yet, dead as his love was, honour remained with him, though it was a rather close-reckoning honour.

Three months later he answered with money her request for house-rent, and in a will dated May 5, , occurs this clause, cancelling his former agreement, and making new provisions:. After her death her son, Anton Polzelli, to receive florins for one year, having always been a good son to his mother and a grateful pupil to me. Polzelli; otherwise so many of my poor relations with greater claims would receive too little. Finally Mme. Polzelli must be satisfied with the annuity of florins.

She still remains, however, his chief heir. Meanwhile, without waiting for his death, she had married again to Luigi Franci, like herself a singer and an Italian. She outlived him and Haydn also, only to die in poverty and senility, far away in Hungary. Poor, eighty-two year old Loisa! Her affairs had been sadly mismanaged.

Why had Loisa given up all hope of marrying Haydn, even when his wife was dead and she was possessed of his agreement, signed, sealed, and delivered, to marry no one but her? Awhile ago I stooped to repeating the scandal that during Signora Polzelli’s life, Haydn had been casting sheep’s eyes elsewhere. But it is such a pretty scandal! Besides, these old contrapuntists were trained from youth to keep two or more tunes going at once. I am not referring to Haydn’s friendship with Frau von Genzinger.

It was Karajan who discovered and published this pleasant correspondence with her. She was the wife of a very successful physician, a “ladies’ doctor” Damen Doktor. Karajan says that she was an ausgezeichnete singer and pianist. A deep friendship sprang up at once between them and they corresponded freely. Haydn’s letters to her were published by Nohl, and you may read them in Lady Wallace’s translation. They are full of the most interesting lights upon Haydn’s life and experiences, and are brimful of affection for Frau von Genzinger.

But the husband and the children are almost always referred to in the letters, and the friendship seems to have been entirely and only a friendship,—as Schmidt calls it, ” eine tiefe und zugleich respectvolle Neigung.

Upton, who accepts the friendship as “honourable,” finds in Frau von Genzinger the only true feminine inspiration Haydn ever had for composition. There is no record that the Polzelli was of any benefit to him musically; certainly she was not morally. But there was another woman who idolised Haydn the musician, and with Haydn the man conducted a quaint and curious love duet embalmed in many a billet-doux fragrant with charm.

It was not, then, Frau von Genzinger that threatened Polzelli’s supremacy. Nor was it Madame Bartolozzi, for whom Haydn wrote a sonata and three trios; nor Mrs. John Hunter, who wrote words for many of his canzonets. Nor yet Mrs. Hodges, for whom he composed, and whom he called “the loveliest woman I ever saw. Billington, of whom the pleasant story is told, that Haydn, when he went to London, called on Sir Joshua Reynolds at his studio, found him painting Mrs.

Billington as “Saint Cecilia listening to the angels,” and protested gallantly that Reynolds ought to have painted the angels listening to her. For which sprightliness he received immediately a fervent hug and a kiss from those so sweet and promiscuous lips. The skeptics object, that Reynolds exhibited the picture in London in , a year before Haydn reached London, but it is a shame to spoil a good and famous story.

Schroeter presents her complements to Mr. Haydn, and informs him that she is just returned to town, and will be very happy to see him whenever it is convenient to him to give her a lesson. This little note was the first of a series of genuine love letters preserved for many years by Haydn. His answers to them seem to have been lost, though the whimsical spade of time that has recently brought to light the works of Bacchylides, after two thousand years and more of oblivion, may with equal speed unsod Haydn’s letters to this interesting personage.

May we be there to see! Just nineteen years before this little preludising note, Mrs. Schroeter was an Englishwoman of wealth and aristocracy. In that year there came to London a German musician, Johann Samuel Schroeter, a brother of Corona Schroeter, one of that Amazonian army of beauties to whom Goethe made love and wrote poetry. He became music-master to the English queen as successor to that son of Sebastian Bach who is known as “the English Bach. But being welcomed as a musician was one thing and as a son-in-law quite another.

When, therefore, he made one of his most aristocratic pupils his wife by a clandestine marriage, there was, according to Fetis, such scandal and such a threat of legal proceedings that he consented to the annulment of the marriage in consideration of a pension of five hundred pounds, and retired from the city to escape notoriety.

Sixteen years after his entry into London Schroeter died of consumption. Three years later another German musician, Joseph Haydn, appears in London, and is taken up by society.

Schroeter, apparently not sated by her first experience, proceeds to repeat it pat. Just as before, she becomes a pupil in music, and later a pupil in love of the newcomer. But whereas her husband had died at the age of thirty-eight, her new lover Haydn was fifty-nine when she met him. Dies quoted Haydn’s own words as saying, “In London, I fell in love with a widow, though she was sixty years old at the time. Krehbiel shows good reason for believing that Dies must have misunderstood Haydn.

To me it occurs as a possibility that Haydn said to Dies, not “though she was sixty years old,” but “though I was sixty years old.

Krehbiel that she was not more than thirty-five or forty, an age not yet so great, according to statistics, as that of Helen of Troy, Cleopatra, and Marian Delorme, at the times of their most potent beauty.

Let us also dismiss as unauthorised and gratuitous the words of Pauline D. Townsend, in her biography of Haydn, when she says of Mrs. Schroeter that she was “an attractive, although, according to modern taste, a somewhat vulgar woman, of over sixty years of age, and there is no disguising the fact that she made violent love to Haydn. Her letters to Haydn are full of tenderness and in questionable taste; his to her have not been preserved, but we can have little doubt that they were warmer in tone than they would have been had not the Channel rolled between him and Frau Haydn in Vienna.

You may judge for yourself as to the charge of “vulgarity. The existence of Mrs. Schroeter’s veritable Love Letters of an Englishwoman was known for many years, and Pohl in his book on “Mozart und Haydn in London” quoted from them. But for their complete publication in the original English, we are indebted to Mr. Krehbiel’s “Music and Manners in the Classical Period. I cannot do better than let these letters speak for themselves through such quotations as I have room to make.

There are twenty-two of them in all, in Mr. Krehbiel’s book. The abbreviations are curious and explain themselves. The abbreviations were possibly due to the fact that the letters exist only in Haydn’s own handwriting, copied into his note-book without attention to their proper order. Or they may have been simply the amorous shorthand of that day.

Two of them are signed R. Schroeter’s first name began with R. In the first letter Mrs. Schroeter says that she encloses him “the words of the song you desire. In his note-book there is an entry on February 13, , and just preceding it a little Italian poem in which I have been pleased to see what was possibly this very song, its first lines being suggestively like the first line of Mrs. Schroeter’s letter. Among the letters there are many anxious allusions, which may indicate that Haydn was suffering from insomnia, unless you are inclined to give them a more subtle significance.

But to the quotations, with regrets that they must be incomplete. Inclos’d I have sent you the words of the song you desire. I wish much to know how you do to day. I am very sorry to lose the pleasure of seeing you this morning, but I hope you will have time to come tomorrow. I beg my D you will take great care of your health and do not fatigue yourself with too much application to business.

My thoughts and best wishes are always with you, and I ever am with the utmost sincerity M. I was extremely sorry to part with you so suddenly last night, our conversation was particularly interesting and I had a thousand affectionate things to Say to you. I am very Sorry I was so dull and Stupid yesterday, indeed my Dearest it was nothing but my being indisposed with a cold occasioned my Stupidity.

I thank you a thousand times for your Concern for me. I am truly Sensible of your goodness and I assure you my D. I hope you will come to me tomorrow. I shall be happy to See you both in the Morning and the Evening. God Bless you my love. I beg you a thousand pardons for not sending it sooner. I know you will have the goodness to excuse me. I hope to hear you are quite well and have Slept well. I shall be happy to See you my D: as soon as possible.

I shall be much obliged to you if you will do me the favor to send me Twelve Tikets for your Concert. I am so truly anxious about you. I must write to beg to know how you do? I was very sorry I had not the pleasure of Seeing you this Evening, my thoughts have been constantly with you and my D.

I thought you seemed out of Spirits this morning. I wish I could always remove every trouble from your mind, be assured my D: I partake with the most perfect sympathy in all your sensations and my regard is Stronger every day. I was extremely Sorry to hear this morning that you were indisposed. Many of the KCP applied to anticipatory activities are part of well-established traditions and sub-fields for generating knowledge about a subject. An example of a recently developed and regularly applied method for describing imaginarySensing and making-sense of FL 29 futures is the field of statistics.

As most people know, statistics is a way to define, gather and interpret information that describes the world according to a particular frame or model. Story-telling is an example of a very old KCP that provides a way to sense and make-sense of the world. Both of these KCP, statistics and story- telling, are familiar methods for describing the imaginary future.

For instance, statistics is essential for macro-economic forecasting or climate change modelling aimed at producing probabilistic estimates or predictions of the future. This lack of awareness is also characteristic of the dominant institutions of the industrial era, public or private — all organised along variants of the bureaucratic division of labour and power.

For instance, most people are famil- iar with the dedicated and highly technical systems that can be found in sectors like the military, finance, technology, health, consumer goods, infrastructure, urban planning, energy, etc.

Past, present and future all succumb to the same descriptive framing that ignores, dis- cards or denigrates the specific, unique and ephemeral. These are methods of knowing that can range from the micro to the macro, from small-scale to large-scale phenomena, consist- ent with the aims of aggregation, comparability and affirming continuity repetition.

Trends and forecasts are its most familiar methods for imagining and describ- ing the future. From the perspective of the emergent present GS phenomena are those that repeat Delanda, , otherwise there is no way of knowing if such phenomena are GS. In part, all knowing contains an element of30 Riel Miller novelty insofar as the experience of arriving at one meaning rather than another is a definitive exclusion, at that moment, of that other meaning and of a dif- ferent experience.

Methods that enable meaning to be attached to SU phenomena do so despite the potential that such meanings may or may not be transient, may or may not become general, may or may not have been unknowable unknowns unmarked prior to emergence. SU phenomena take into account that initially there is no way of knowing future states. Nevertheless, KCP for knowing the SU attach meaning, often without words, to phenomena in the emergent present. The KCP used to imagine the future must be selected on the basis of the spe- cific goals and contexts within which the future is being used.

Why project one form of storage or way of being, such as a sedentary way of life and hence the need for a cabinet? The selection of KCP depends on the choice of why the future is being used and the associated kind of future, in conjunction with the specific context that determines both the actual sources of knowledge that serve as ingre- dients for generating the content of an imagined future and the conditions that shape the process.

Someone who is highly futures literate is knowledgeable and experienced in the design of KCP that will be effective and efficient for deploying specific AS in specific contexts.

Using Figure 1. This book, with its focus on initial, proof-of-concept research into FL, is not the place for an exhaustive review and analysis of either KCP as a field or the relationship of KCP in general to thinking about the future. It is important, how- ever, to underscore the diversity and contextual specificity of the methods that can accompany efforts to become futures literate see fourth section, first part, and Chapter 4.

There is no suggestion here that there is only one approach — on the contrary the thrust of developing the FLF is to enable the diversification of methods in light of a clear theoretical framework and a foundation for conducting experiments that test hypotheses about why and how humans anticipate. AA are to FL what an atom is to phys- ics or the cell to living systems.

Without abusing the parallels to other disciplines, it is clearly scientifically useful for both the theory and practice of anticipation to be able to identify a common object of inquiry that serves as a shared refer- ence point for the exploration of different facets of the topic and the development of specialised sub-fields.

From macro- and micro-economics to labour market and welfare economics, the starting point for questions, hypotheses, and evidence was the nature and dynam- ics of the allocation of resources such as land, labour and capital to the production of income flow and wealth stock. Of course, the organisation of a field into sub-disciplines around a core topic takes time.

Economics, if one starts count- ing with Adam Smith, has had well over two centuries. Futures Studies and an understanding of FL as a capability are fields that are still in the early stages of development. One potentially important step along the path towards building a shared lan- guage for research into FL and the FLL-N case studies reported in Chapter 5 is to begin detailing the characteristics of different clusters of AA.

Looking at Figure 1. Much of the time, given the widespread lack of FL, people do not make explicit choices about which AA to adopt.

By getting people to reveal why and how they anticipate, FLL generate indicators that can be associated with different clusters of AA. Typical examples are macro-economic and climate change forecasting that extrapolate from the past. The currently dominant epis- temological tools for describing AA1 imaginary futures include statistics and benchmarking that use aggregation type common denominators.

Totalising determin- istic imagination. Colonisation of tomorrow. Insurance for tomorrow. The imaginary futures in AA2 are foretold. Atrophy of the imagination. AA3 futures can be probabilistic or normative from within a given paradigm. Creativity methods can be used to seek generalisable solutions but within the confines of AfF type goals. Currently most innovation activities are in AA3. Deterministic creative imagination. AA4 target endogenous creativity, imagining that is confined to extrapolatory probabilistic or pre-conceived normative futures AfF.

Introspective adaptive imagination. AA5 seeks to detect and invent novelty with reference to phenomena that repeat Delanda, , since if the phenomenon is not immediately identifiably repetition there is no way of initially knowing if something is general or scalable.

Repetition includes variation, a given variable that increases or decreases. Combines doing and not-doing imagination related to general-scalable repetition. Local is used here in its most basic dictionary sense: as within a limited physical or virtual community such that what appears to be a specific-unique dif- ference at the local, and in this sense isolated level, may turn out to be something that has already been identified as a general-scalable repetition at a more global level.

Combines doing and not-doing imagination related to specific-unique difference as being. On the basis of these two dimensions — ontological and epistemological — the FLF depicted in Figure 1.

Stated actively, a futures literate person can choose the AA that are appropriate to the kind of future they want to know and then design and implement the pro- cesses that enable them to acquire such knowledge.

In a nutshell, a futures literate34 Riel Miller person is capable of using anticipation for different ends, in different ways and in different contexts. Two examples of applying the Futures Literacy Framework The two sub-sections below offer examples of how the FLF can be applied to specific design and analytical tasks.

In the second example, the FLF is used to map the theories and practices that currently dominate the field of Future Studies. This sub-section provides an initial overview of the two-part response to the challenge of designing a research methodology for discovering, inventing and reporting on the actual AA people are using — world- wide.

More detail can be found in Chapters 4 and 5. The first part involved the development of an effective and efficient method capable of revealing a full range of AA in almost all contexts around the world. FLL are such a general- purpose tool. The second part of the response to the research challenges of this project entailed the tailoring of FLL to the specific search for AA from across all six clusters, AA1 to AA6. The FLL-N is such a customisation.

From to experiments with different configurations of the basic FLL design were run around the world, from the FuturesIreland Miller et al. The rest of this sub-section gives a summary overview of the FLL and FLL-N in order to provide readers another example of the application of the FLF and to set the stage for the rest of the book. But again, as already discussed, any such exploration of the relevance and diffusion of the AS and KCP that underpin FL faces a fundamental obstacle — ignorance.

For the most part, despite the fact that people, communities and organisations all use imaginary futures all the time, few pay explicit attention to the why, what and how of these anticipatory activities. In other words, they are futures illiterate. Such illiteracy poses a basic scientific challenge: how to identify or describe AA, including those AA that may depend on already being futures literate? And then, on the basis of an answer to this first question, how to find methods for generating evidence that can test whether or not such descriptions correspond to what people are actually doing or could be doing if they were futures literate?

At a fundamental level, all research is always confronted with this type of chicken-and-egg problem because the universe we are part of is continually evolv- ing and the sensing and sense-making frames and tools that we use to understand it change too — both intentionally and unintentionally.

From this perspective, and to recapitulate the path leading to the design and implementation of the FLL-N deployed in this particular project, it is useful to underscore that the FLF starts from the hypothesis that anticipation is possible in this universe but that the conscious capacity of humans to describe and use it can be further elaborated. Practice and theory, theory and practice go together. The FLF is such an outcome, fruit of proof-of-concept and design experimentation that has been going on for more than three decades.

The FLF supplies an analytical structure for describing conscious human anticipatory activities, detailing six clusters of AA that define and differentiate dimensions of FL as a capability. This research goal then sets a more precise challenge for the design of a research tool — it must be capable of generating evidence of FL capabilities in AA1 to AA6 worldwide.

Hence a necessary requirement was that the tool generate evidence of awareness, or lack thereof, of different AA. Furthermore, to meet the evidentiary targets of the project the attrib- utes of the AA that are rendered comprehensible by the research tool must include analytical markers that display the distinctive DoA and KCP attributes that char- acterise different AA clusters. In certain cases, such as AA1 to AA4 this challenge does not pose that much of a problem. It is relatively easy to expose the AA of clusters AA1 to AA4 by inviting people to make the move from tacit to explicit since such expressions are confined to relatively conventional and familiar AA.

More difficult, because of the obstacles posed by paradigm lock-in and the inertial properties of dominant conventions, is generating evidence of AA5 and AA6. At a minimum, this is a dual challenge. On the other hand, there is the difficulty of capturing or sensing and making-sense of something unfamiliar — how to give the data meaning?

Designing a response to the challenge of gathering evidence of AA Arriving at a set of design criteria for an effective and efficient research tool for gathering evidence of AA started, as noted above, over three decades ago. What is essential in the context of the UNESCO FL Project is not the history of the method but the practical requirements and responses that shaped the research conducted for this project.

Considering the challenges of this project led to the adoption of three key design choices, two of which are basic attributes of FLL in general and one of which is specific to the FLL-N tailored to the needs of this project.

The basic distinction between FLL and FLL-N is typical of laboratory specialisation where the specific implementations of a basic design can be customised to be more effective at testing a particular set of hypotheses.

This kind of customisation should not be confused with the general and universal design requirement that all FLL need to be jointly conceived and implemented in ways that are adapted to the actual context of each experiment.

Every time a lab is run the specific ways that participants learn, the specification of the goals, the time of day and the sun- niness or not of the room, for instance, all make a critical difference and must be accounted for in the design and implementation of the lab for further discussion of these issues see Chapters 4 and 5.

A Action learning research. In other words, people were invited to engage in a process that called onSensing and making-sense of FL 37 them to imagine the future and begin articulating the associated AA. As the pro- cess unfolded participants started to become futures literate, able to articulate and discern different AA. Selecting action learning as the primary method for making AA explicit also offered the advantage of being ex-ante compatible from a design perspective, with a range of reframing tools that can be used to realise the objec- tive of going beyond AfF as required for this specific project and realised through the third design choice below.

This last attribute of CIKC is essential for meeting the design requirements of a global project such as this one. First, the recent and widely dispersed emergence of CIKC initiatives Scharmer, ; Hassan, ; The Grove, ; The Value Web, covering a range of designs, theoretical reference points and goals, seems to be symptomatic of a gap or inadequacy in existing methods for sensing and making-sense of the world around us.

In other words, at the current point in time there seems to be a glob- ally dispersed need, in all kinds of different communities, covering a gamut of motivations, to tap into sources for making sense of the world knowing from both the GS and SU perspectives.

This demand for new KCP can be considered, in part, a response to the cognitive dissonance that arises when conceptions of human agency steeped in determinism and reductionism crash headlong into both the reality of complexity and the desire for open creativity and diversity even diversification. Second, again symptomatic of our times, the growing appreciation of the importance of understanding and engaging with complexity is slowly nourish- ing a counter movement to the dominance of systems for perceiving and giving importance to generalities in mass societies described through using common denominator statistical methods.

But depending on the way the future is imagined, this new KCP might be like the microscope in the 17th century, making the invisible visible. Only as the history of the microscope shows, it was not clear what this new tool would be good for. Was it a form of entertainment, exposing the mon- sters lurking in a drop of water but invisible to the naked eye? Or was it to assist with gathering the evidence that would show that bacteria cause infection and lead doctors to start washing their hands?

As usual the question when a new tool is invented is what will be its signifi- cance or how will it be used? Finding ways of describing and giving meaning to ephemeral experience opens up new possibilities, like the realisation that learning something, as opposed to not learning, is actually a distinct fork in reality, the one of paths taken and paths not-taken. As the quote from Popper at the beginning of this chapter emphasises, a change in the capacity to appreciate the meaning of process is a way of changing the present.

Empowering people with the capacity to understand the role of con- scious anticipation as imagination in shaping perception of the present — in other words they become futures literate — is therefore a way of continuously changing the present. Just like a chemistry or physics or biology or psychology lab, FLL can be customised in order to explore a particular set of issues, similar to when a chemistry lab is tailored for high-temperature experiments. Context-determined implementations of FLL usually add other design requirements and solutions on top of the basic FLL founda- tion, as is the case with the FLL-N that was tailored specifically to the needs of this project.

For instance, customised FLL, as depicted in Figure 1. Specific research tasks related to different sets or clusters of AA usually call for research methods adapted to the task. For instance, the customisation of the FLL template to the specific tasks of this Project is achieved by seeking a design customisation that is intended to enable the collection of evidence related to all six clusters, AA1 to AA6.

One other general point worth keeping in mind is that FLL are not the only research tool for exploring AA. As already mentioned in the Introduction, alternative techniques that are familiar to researchers conducting historical, ethnographic, semiotic, anthropological, psychological studies and more all offer viable approaches to collecting evidence regarding AA.

The decision to privilege a customised FLL, the FLL-N, for this project was largely deter- mined by the still emergent nature of this field and the need to be able to conduct low-cost and worldwide proof-of-concept experiments that tested the hypothesis that FL is a capability expressed across all six clusters of AA. C Reframing. This design criterion calls for the co-creation of a catalyst capable of inducing the learning process to move from AA1 all the way through to AA6.

In practical terms, the major hurdle is to find a tool that enables participants to get beyond the frame of AfF. As noted before, such a move is difficult due to para- digm lock-in and convention inertia, but is design-critical for this project since experience has shown that without a tool like reframing that generates sufficient distance from the hold of AfF there is no assurance that FLL will generate evi- dence related to AfE in clusters AA5 and AA6.

Chapter 4 provides more detail regarding the specific positioning of FLL-N in terms of the FLF and more detailed account of implementation design issues. The FLF in perspective. It is however, also important to avoid confusing specific applications with the more general attributes of both the FLF and its component parts.

At least four points are worth raising in this regard. The former is a lived activity and a capability while the latter is a spe- cific research tool for exploring FL. In other words, processes for creating knowledge are essential for anticipatory activities and therefore constitute an axis of the FLF, but although it may seem obvious it is important to keep in mind that knowledge is generated in many other contexts and for many other reasons.

Third, collective intelligence knowledge creation CIKC processes are a sub- set of KCP but are also a general-purpose tool for sensing and making-sense of many forms of both specificity and emergence, including learning.

CIKC, as aSensing and making-sense of FL 41 distinct set of theories and practices, is similar in nature to a trans-disciplinary field like statistics that enables humans to define, detect and make sense of spe- cific phenomenon as well as invent the tools like surveys that make something that is imperceptible, like the average height of the population or Gross National Product, perceptible. Fourth, it is critical to note that there are plenty of examples of efforts to think about the future that are not based on an FLL methodology but that can be mapped onto the FLF framework.

Such methods can be identified fairly easily on the basis of the AA that define the method. In most cases this large panoply of FS tools was not conceived of or designed to reveal AA but rather to explore specific futures.

Using the FLF to gain a better analytical grasp of the kinds of AS and KCP con- nected with these tools is a significant step on the road to being able to anchor the matching of tools to tasks on the basis of an underlying theoretical framework.

This is the topic of the next sub-section. The main point is that the FLF, as a way of describing FL as a capability, can be used for two purposes: 1 to be more analytically precise about FS theory and practice, and 2 to identify potential directions for the development of FS theory and practice. For instance, Figure 1. This is depicted on the far right of Figure 1.

The attributes of FL as displayed by Figure 1. The point here is not to argue that FS should expand to encompass non- conscious anticipation.

The aim here is more neutral and analytical. The hope is to offer a framework for thinking about the application and evolution of FS as a field of knowledge. FS could use the FLF to gain a better understanding of how to match specific tools to specific tasks or to expand or contract or shift the focus of FS to cover different issues and points-of-view as theories change and practices adapt.

In particular, mainstream FS offers insights into different descriptive labels that can be meaningfully attached to different AA, and methods for imag- ining the future that can inspire the discovery and invention of AA.

FS brings a large inventory of theories and practices related to human use-of-the-future. All these theories and methods can be deployed in the different clusters of AA depending on the context and can be used to describe different aspects of FL. Up until now most of the academic literature and actual practices in the field of FS have not been able to take advantage of a common analytical vocabulary or shared points-of-reference like AA.

This lack of a shared terrain for initiating and connecting collaborative scientific inquiry and application is in some ways not surprising given the weak and largely peripheral position of FS. On the contrary, the aim is to encourage the development of FS by enabling deeper and wider research and application through traditional scientific, experimentation based methods.

Again, the adoption of a hypothesis testing approach, in the case of the work in this book at the proof-of-concept level, is not meant to suggest that FLL or FLL-Ns offer or impose some kind of procedural or methodological exclusivity. Quite the opposite, the hope is that by detailing the design principles of FLL as one general-purpose tool for experiencing AA and providing an exam- ple of a customised version, the FLL-N, researchers will be able to make their own assessments.

The vocation here is neither to be exclusive or all encompass- ing, although the premise of generating evidence related to explicit hypotheses is taken as the universal starting point for the specification and conduct of the research. The whole point of the FLF is to push the frontiers or boundaries of the understanding of anticipation, without claiming closure or exhaustivity.

The status of FS as a discipline remains controversial, and the proposition that the FLF offers the prospect of disciplinarity by potentially providing FS with shared ontological and epistemological reference points, remains to be seen.

Disciplines, defined as common frameworks for pursuing research and developing practice, are not born full-grown, nor outside of a specific context. Today FS and FL are being pushed and pulled by current conditions and complex evolutionary emergence. One of the main drawbacks is that such disciplinarity can exclude alternative formulations from outside and suppress heretical ideas on the inside.

There is no denying that the claim of disciplinarity for FL as a capability based on the FLF does run the risk of exclusion, but it is a risk that needs to be assessed in context.

Currently there are at least two mitigating factors that seem worth taking into consideration. First, the serious lack of scientific capacity and status with respect to understanding the nature and role of the future in theory and practice.

This is a serious problem if one accepts the hypothesis that motivates the work presented in this book: that understanding anticipation better may be a necessary but not sufficient condition for reframing the relationship between human agency and complexity. Such disputes are inherent to this kind of exercise and may seem wasteful and risky, particularly since up until now FS has been unable to forge a shared terrain. So far, the results seem positive. Admittedly there is a risk of creating divergent, even paradigmatically distinct terrains for thinking about the future.

Yet, at this proof-of-concept stage of the research the signs remain promising. This last point merits being underscored in light of the delicate question noted above regarding both the inclusiveness of the FLF and the relationship between FS and the FLF. The selection for this project of particular theoretical, ana- lytical, and practical issues and approaches reflects the priorities of UNESCO and its partners to develop and clarify FL as a capability that may be able to contribute to human resilience.

With these objectives in mind, the research process for the UNESCO FL Project was designed to focus on the main parameters of the FLF, not to provide an inventory of all the theories and methods that fit within that framework. The hope is that the FLF, as a collaborative work in progress, can contribute to the construction of a shared scientific foundation and that this process will not be played out as an insider—outsider game.

Sensing and making-sense of FL 45 As is typical of such a scientific endeavour, the research process and findings are not necessarily the same thing, even if the tools often take on considerable prominence. However, the topic of this research is FL as a capability.

Deploying anticipatory systems and processes in order to understand FL makes disentangling the two somewhat tricky, but as elaborated in detail over the following chapters, testing the rele- vance of a framework for making sense of how people anticipate by engaging in anticipation is quite effective. In particular, there are many attributes of FL, such as those related to complexity and indeterminism, which can only be discerned by getting people to actually anticipate in different ways.

Working in this direc- tion, the research and experimentation into the FLF reported in this book confirm the critical role of advances both within and across the fields of anticipation and knowledge creation. Later chapters go into greater depth on specific topics while the case studies deliver considerable detail on what happens when designing and implementing processes to test the FLF in a range of different contexts.

Such efforts to reveal aspects of our universe are of fundamental importance and no judgment is made here one way or the other. Such an assumption also seems to be compatible with a view of creativity and unknowability that posits the potential for invention to enlarge the universe of possibilities, while forgetting may shrink it.

I want to thank Hardin for the conversation regarding this topic, but do not hold him in any way accountable for the interpretation presented here. However, this formulation can encompass rather passive forms of action, like efforts to know — which is an action that may or may not have further consequences related to reactions, like leaves falling, or choices like deciding to take an umbrella if the weather forecast predicts rain.

Indeed, work on FL not only draws atten- tion to the epistemic bias towards generalities, common denominators and scalability of much social science and everyday frames for describing the world but also calls rather directly for the recognition of knowledge creation processes KCP that can sense and make-sense of the unique, specific and ephemeral. This suggests that the epistemologi- cal sphere also needs rebalancing, particularly if the richness of time-place specificity as an inherent part of complex emergence is to be taken into account.

The ability or inability to recognise repetition is limited by what is known there location and then present and in this sense the recognition of repetition or difference is always initially limited by what is known locally — or the point of origin.

References Aaltonen, M. Marblehead: Emergent Publications. Adler, P. Archer, M. Bauman, Z. Cambridge: Polity Press. Beck, U. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Mineola: Dover. Bishop, P. Washington, DC: Social Technologies. Bourdieu, P. London: Sage. Bower, T. Boyd, E. Cagnin, C. Curry, A.

Davidson, P. Should Economics Be Rigorous? Delanda, M. Ehresmann, A. Giddens, A. Godet, M. London: Economica. Sensing and making-sense of FL 47 Goffman, E. Hassan, Z. Heidegger, M. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Hult, M. Inayatullah, S.

Kahane, A. Kahneman, D. London: Penguin Press. Kauffman, S. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kelley, T. New York, NY: Doubleday.

Kimbell, L. Kobaysahi, S. Tokyo: Physical Society of Japan. Lakoff, G. Latour, B. Lewin, A. London: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. Mao, Z. New York: Monthly Review Press. Masini, E. Toronto: Ministry of Colleges and Universities Ontario. Seville: Gemalto. Misuraca, G. Edited by Marijn Jansen and Elsa Estevez. Montemayor, C.

Mulgan, G. Nonaka, I. North, D. Nussbaum, M. Ogilvy, J. New York: Routledge, pp. Paavola, S. Berlin: De Gruyter. Popper, K. Bristol: Thoemmes Press. Robson, S. Rose, D. Sheffield: Equinox. Oxford: Permagon Press. Berlin: Springer Publishing, pp. Rossel, P. Samuelson, P. New York: McGraw-Hill. Scharmer, C. Sen, A. Slaughter, R. Sydney: Prospect Media. London: Routledge. Indooroopilly, Queensland: Foresight International.

Snowden, D. Stacey, R. Harlow: Prentice Hall. Stanford d. Taleb, N. London: Random House. Tetlock, P. Trilling, B. Theory and Practice of Intelligent Organizations. Helsinki: Metaxis. Ulanowicz, R. Unger, R. Van der Heijden, K. Wack, P.

Wadsworth, B. New York: McKay. Wang, S. Wegner, E. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wendt, A. Wilenius, M.

Fruitful initial answers have been provided by what have now become classics of the field, such as the pio- neering Art of Conjecture by De Jouvenel or the extensive Foundations of Future Studies by Bell Poli provides a more detailed reconstruction of the field.

More recently a series of five workshops, called the Futures Meeting FuMee, used the European COST initiative on foresight methodologies as a springboard for research into the founding principles, cross-cutting foundations and key concepts that define the evolving field of Futures Studies see Miller and Poli, for papers published from the first FuMee.

A recent issue of On the Horizon Poli, , p. Most recently research into anticipation as a concept that is relevant across a wide range of fields has taken off through a newly established series of interna- tional conferences and a Handbook of Anticipation edited by Poli The first International Anticipation Conference took place at the University of Trento in Project Anticipation, and the second one took place in London in November Anticipation , The analysis presented in this chapter reflects the discussions and debates that have been underway for almost a decade now, involving a number of other col- leagues, particularly the members of the FuMee Steering Committee The FuMee Network, The discussion of the Discipline of Anticipation DoA proposed in this chapter starts from the proposition that any effort to straightjacket FS into the boundaries of a single discipline will fail to capture the diversity of the field.

Equally the future is incorporated into all phenomena, conscious or unconscious, physical or ideational, as anticipation. One important rationale for investing in the DoA is that it may improve the conscious use of the future in the present Rossel, This rationale takes as its starting point the contention that perfect anticipation of change is both practically and theoretically not achievable in our universe.

This is where the DoA has a particularly important contribution to make. Specifically, the DoA provides ideas and tools that can alter and expand the role of anticipation in shaping what humans perceive, including our capacity to make sense of novelty. This is because the theory and practice of the DoA devel- ops and extends the categories and methods of anticipation that can be used to improve discovery and sense making.

By enlarging and enhancing the analytical and operational approaches to incorporating the later-than-now into our thinking the DoA can improve anticipatory capacities in a wide range of circumstances. Subsequently, as the reach and refinement of the discipline benefits from more reflection and purposeful experimentation it may help to create the conditions for other novel changes.

In this respect, the DoA is like other disciplines; it is an effort to develop a fuller classification of various types of anticipation and a more systematic inventory of the ways in which anticipation is understood by different sciences and disciplines in the service of human knowledge.

Like all such efforts to gain a better understanding of a subject there is no assurance that the knowl- edge so acquired will of necessity serve good or ill, nor generate only intended consequences. While anticipation has been widely studied within a number of different disciplines — including biology, anthropology, cognitive and social sciences — to date nobody has collected and systematically compared the results.

A prelimi- nary survey by Poli and a bibliography by Nadin signal the scale of the task. So far two figures stand out as central contributors to the Discipline of Anticipation: the mathematical biologist Robert Rosen , and the anthropologist John W.

Bennett The former established the theory of anticipatory systems, the latter the connection between anticipation and resilience.

The issue of anticipation is presently a hot topic. Not surprisingly, from the point of view of FS and the DoA, the primary focus of attention falls on explicit anticipation as a combination of capacities that allow human beings to consider and evaluate the present in light of the way they imag- ine the future.

In this sense, explicit anticipation individual and collective can be considered a key element or contributor to the human activity of decision-making. Anticipatory activities play a key role in both the search for available choices in the present and the form of agency in which such choices are conceived and eventually acted upon.

One use of anticipation is as a means to imagine how actions might play out in the future, although such simulations can only be tested once future realities happen. Simulations of this kind can be useful to think about the consequences of decisions, including errors that could turn out to be irrevocable.

Clearly it calls attention to the potentially unforgiving nature of reality and the costs arising from what may turn out to be wrong decisions, either in the short or the longer term. But excessive fear of actual error, the desire to always be so well prepared, so perfectly planned, that the target is never under- or over-shot, can crowd out one of the other strands of anticipation, learning from failed or mistaken experiments by reconsidering the anticipatory assumptions that help us make sense and evaluate the present.

This strand of anticipation can be obscured when we lose sight of the fact that conscious efforts to prepare for the future or shape it are but part of a larger mix of elements that make up difference and repetition in the emergent present, including novelty that cannot be known in advance.

The importance of the DoA may well be that it enables a more explicit and considered approach to these two strands of anticipation — bringing additional perspectives and systematic knowledge, not only to efforts at preparing for exter- nal events that are assumed to be predictable and to planning that aims to achieve specific goals in the future, but also to the less familiar challenge of grasping the meaning of what may look like a failed experiment yet turns out to be an emergent success when judged against a new framework.

One may be thought of as con- scious anticipation that addresses closed systems and the other anticipation that addresses open systems, as discussed in Chapter 1 with respect to Anticipation for the Future AfF and Anticipation for Emergence AfE see also Ogilvy, ; Miller, a. In conclusion to this section it is worth noting that much of our understand- ing of anticipation remains cursory and fragmentary. Yet even if this leads us to refrain at this point from making strong or general claims regarding the nature and role of the DoA it seems fair to note that anticipation does play a basic role in many different fields from biology, sociology, and economics to medicine and architecture, and politics.

Disciplinarity Human efforts to appreciate the nature and functioning of anticipation in the world around us are undertaken on the basis of specific concepts and practices, either tacit or explicit. This is the field of knowledge that explores, invents, accumulates, and transmits the frameworks and information that make up our understanding and experience of anticipation.

The Discipline of Anticipation 55 As a field of knowledge, the DoA can be sustained and improved through scientific effort. Like similar fields of practice and theory of knowledge, such as economics or sociology but also more applied crafts, the field of knowledge provides specific ways of knowing-describing-understanding such activities. Anticipation is pervasive, but there are specific anticipatory processes that can be identified, used, and made the subject of hypothesis testing through exper- imentation and analytical efforts.

A better understanding of different forms of anticipation is helpful for engaging in economic and sociological analysis, just as theories and practices that help to understand economic and sociological phenom- ena can clarify aspects of anticipation.

The DoA, like other fields of knowledge, has sub-fields and a history and weighting of different sub-fields. Additionally, certain sub-fields are more pre- ponderant in other fields of knowledge, such as forecasting in economics or climate science.

Also, as with the emergence of other fields of knowledge, his- torical context matters. In the case of DoA a series of factors have served to both push and pull and enable and demand the development of a more sophisticated body of knowledge.

For example, a push might be complexity theory offering new tools for thinking about the future, while a pull might be practical efforts to solve the problems presented by changes in the condition of change by inventing new approaches and frameworks.

Apart from the content side to which we shall soon return , a complemen- tary way to characterize the DoA is to take into consideration the accountability criteria that its practitioners should follow. FS is inclusive. Some components of FS are more subject than others to constraints, however. In particular, futures exercises conducted by professionals and futures teaching require forms of accountability that may be inappropriate for the field of FS as a whole — such as responsibility toward clients and students, and basic research.

We shall adopt the expression DoA for this sub-field of FS. Two further demarcations help in distinguishing different versions of the DoA, or differently nuanced DoAs.

First, the needs of professionals and aca- demics may differ, in part, and respond to different accountability criteria. Second, two preponderant foci can be distinguished when looking across current theory and practice within the DoA. While these terms do not fully capture all the nuances of FS as practice, in particular the nature and range of open futures, the current discourse falls roughly into these two camps.

Much forecasting practice rests on the well-established modelling approach that tests predictive hypotheses using past data. If the model and data are deemed to accurately describe past behaviour of the variable s being predicted the model is considered more or less robust for extrapolatory purposes.

Economic and cli- mate change forecasts work along these lines. Sophisticated forecasters, working within the carefully developed and tested closed models used for extrapolation of variance, can find ways to integrate advanced systems theory into their reasoning and conclusions — together with the implied issues of multi-stability, discontinu- ity, phase transitions, etc.

These simulations however, circumscribe the imaginary future within the probabilistic premises required to use models to project the past into the future. Foresight as a practice, when distinguished from forecasting, is formally prem- ised on the unknowability of the future and hence attempts to be more systematic in imagining futures that are not constrained by projecting the past.

This does not mean that foresight practitioners do not use extrapolation and models to imag- ine the future. Indeed, they can use probabilistic statements as spring-boards for imagining the future and can even, in certain circumstances, aim to provide a probabilistic assessment of the future.

Foresight processes however, usually take a different path from that of the forecaster. In general, foresight claims both a more creative and participatory mission, aimed at discovering new options and exploiting different forms of knowledge.

As a result, foresight as a practice has experimented, somewhat haphazardly as is to be expected at the outset of new frameworks, with the challenge of both inventing and making sense of numerous new methods for generating and interpreting anticipatory assumptions and imagi- nary futures Bishop, Hines and Collins, ; Wilkinson, ; Rossel, Given the divergent priorities of these two groups of practitioners it is not surprising that there has been relatively little cross-fertilization or joint efforts.

Overcoming this divide could be quite productive since there are numerous issues such as Futures Literacy and complexity see section on complexity below that are of relevance to both groups.

Deciding whether the DoA, as we see it, is a discipline and what makes us think so and with what degree of legitimacy, is a challenging task. As an initial contribu- tion, the following section addresses three questions:The Discipline of Anticipation 57 1 What is a discipline, what do we mean by that?

What would qualify it for that claim? The DoA is a discipline precisely because it has its own territory of knowl- edge the future, or better, the future-as-linked-to-the-present. The disciplinarity of the DoA includes both the clarification of the relevant models, procedures and issues — which to some extent may overlap with those of FS and eventually with those of other disciplines too — and the criteria of accountability mentioned above. If we push this proposition further, we must specify the knowledge territory addressed by a discipline and the ways to address this knowledge territory.

The following are some general features we are aware of that are presented by most if not all the disciplines. Clarifying the foci of interest is more relevant than establishing clear-cut boundaries, because the latter can overlap with an endless number of other disciplines.

Furthermore, the process itself of generating traces is valuable and enables different learning dynamics to be distinguished and addressed. The habit of referencing the work of others upon which, or in contrast to which, one attempts to build new knowledge is considered a fair code of conduct.

Two sets of criteria apply: 1 standard practices for complying with scientific debating and evaluation patterns; and 2 practices specific to the discipline, to be identified and discussed within the DoA arena, and related to the par- ticular issues and challenges of the DoA. This is perhaps the most demanding aspect, in part because there are at least two relevant paradigms. Taking the dominant view of the relationship between prediction and agency, embodied in planning, there is a dual problem for assessing the performance of foresight activities: 1 strictly speaking there are no current data about the future and therefore evaluations58 Riel Miller et al.

An alternative paradigm for evaluation starts from a differ- ent conception of the use of the future and its relationship to agency. This might be called the anti-planning paradigm. Here the evaluation of anticipa- tory activity is not related to plan fulfilment or the accuracy of predictions in divining outcomes.

Instead success is based on the constant diversification of imagined futures, including non-predictive and non-normative descriptions of tomorrow, with the outcome being the expansion of sensing and sense- making in the present. Despite, or perhaps because of these difficulties in assessing foresight practice, the DoA may offer a number of solutions by enhancing the viability of input-based assessment, checking to see if the ingredients and processes respect state-of-the-art knowledge.

Key theoretical components of the DoA As with every other discipline, the DoA exploits a variety of methods. This chap- ter, however, intentionally leaves aside discussion of these diverse methods in order to remain focused on the meta-level disciplinary aspects.

In other words, we are concerned with how our understanding of the functioning of the disci- pline can be organized. Here, as a preliminary proposition, we present two ways of understanding how the DoA is organized, namely Futures Literacy FL and complexity. Futures Literacy Skipping over the history of anticipatory thinking, the current situation is one where the capacity to understand anticipation is becoming both more operation- ally doable and desirable.

The emergence of this capacity, in a way that may be compared to the push and pull of the emergence of the universal capability to read and write during the industrial revolution, can be called Futures Literacy FL Miller, , , b, As with reading and writing, FL entails the capacity to decipher and categorize as well as produce design, conduct and interpret explicit volitional and intentional processes of anticipatory knowledge creation, as a necessary and ordinary skill.

FL, like language literacy, involves the acquisition of the know-what, know-how, know-who and know-why — to which we could also add problems of know-when — that are required to deploy anticipa- tory systems appropriately — i. The future asThe Discipline of Anticipation 59 anticipation however, is continuously instrumentalized; the point of this phrase is to draw attention to this common and important activity.

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