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This site recommends Javascript to function properly. Only for a short time! The state and other members of civic society punished Christians for treason, various rumored crimes, illegal assembly, and for introducing an alien cult that led to Roman apostasy. The first, localized Neronian persecution occurred under the emperor Nero r. A more general persecution occurred during the reign of Marcus Aurelius r.
The Decian persecution was particularly extensive. The persecution of Emperor Valerian r. His successor Gallienus r. The Augustus Diocletian r.
After Constantine the Great r. Each city worshipped its own set of gods and goddesses that had originally been derived from ancient Greece and become Romanized. This polis-religion was embedded in, and inseparable from, “the general structures of the ancient city; there was no religious identity separate from political or civic identity, and the essence of religion lay in ritual rather than belief”.
Support for this form of traditional Roman polytheism had begun to decline by the first century BC when it was seen, according to various writers and historians of the time, as having become empty and ineffectual.
The Roman approach to empire building included a cultural permeability that allowed foreigners to become a part of it, but the Roman religious practice of adopting foreign gods and practices into its pantheon did not apply equally to all gods: “Many divinities were brought to Rome and installed as part of the Roman state religion, but a great many more were not”. MacMullen says the most significant factor in determining whether one received ‘tolerance’ or ‘intolerance’ from Roman religion was if that religion honored one’s god “according to ancestral custom”.
Christians were thought of badly for abandoning their ancestral roots in Judaism. Roman officials had become suspicious of the worshippers of Dionysus and their practice of Bacchanalia as far back as BC because it “took place at night”.
This became the pattern for the Roman state’s response to whatever was seen as a religious threat. Sherwin-White records that serious discussion of the reasons for Roman persecution of Christians began in , when it produced “20 years of controversy” and three main opinions: first, there was the theory held by most French and Belgian scholars that “there was a general enactment, precisely formulated and valid for the whole empire, which forbade the practice of the Christian religion. The origin of this is most commonly attributed to Nero, but sometimes to Domitian”.
Nero had an older resolution forbidding the introduction of new religions, but the application to Christians is seen as coming from the much older Republican principle that it was a capital offense to introduce a new superstition without the authorization of the Roman state. Sherwin-White adds that this theory might explain persecution at Rome, but it fails to explain it in the provinces.
The second theory, which originated with German scholars, and is the best known theory to English readers, is that of coercitio curtailment. It holds that Christians were punished by Roman governors through the ordinary use of their power to keep order, because Christians had introduced “an alien cult which induced ‘national apostasy’, [and] the abandonment of the traditional Roman religion.
Others substituted for this a general aversion to the established order and disobedience to constituted authority. All of [this] school seem to envisage the procedure as direct police action, or inquisition against notable malefactors, arrest, and punishment, without the ordinary forms of trial”. A third school asserted that Christians were prosecuted for specific criminal offenses such as child-murder, incest, magic, illegal assembly, and treason — a charge based on their refusal to worship the divinity of the Roman emperor.
Sherwin-White says “this third opinion has usually been combined with the coercitio theory, but some scholars have attributed all Christian persecution to a single criminal charge, notably treason, or illegal assembly, or the introduction of an alien cult”.
Classics professor emeritus Joseph Plescia says persecution was caused by an ideological conflict. In this clash of ideologies, “the ordinary Christian lived under a constant threat of denunciation and the possibility of arraignment on capital charges”.
The Christian had exacting moral standards that included avoiding contact with those that still lay in bondage to ‘the Evil One’ 2 Corinthians ; 1 John 2: ; Revelation 4 ; II Clement 6; Epistle of Barnabas, Various occupations and careers were regarded as inconsistent with Christian principles, most notably military service and public office, the manufacturing of idols, and of course all pursuits which affirmed polytheistic culture, such as music, acting, and school-teaching cf.
Hippolytus, Apostolic Tradition Even the wearing of jewelry and fine apparel was judged harshly by Christian moralists and ecclesiastical officials, as was the use of cosmetics and perfumes”. In Rome, citizens were expected to demonstrate their loyalty to Rome by participating in the rites of the state religion which had numerous feast days, processions and offerings throughout the year. McDonald explains that the privatizing of religion was another factor in persecution as “Christians moved their activities from the streets to the more secluded domains of houses, shops and women’s apartments Early Christian communities were highly inclusive in terms of social stratification and other social categories, much more so than were the Roman voluntary associations.
Edward Gibbon argued that the tendency of Christian converts to renounce their family and country, and their frequent predictions of impending disasters , instilled a feeling of apprehension in their pagan neighbors. By embracing the faith of the Gospel the Christians incurred the supposed guilt of an unnatural and unpardonable offence. They dissolved the sacred ties of custom and education, violated the religious institutions of their country, and presumptuously despised whatever their fathers had believed as true, or had reverenced as sacred.
Many pagans believed that bad things would happen if the established pagan gods were not properly propitiated and reverenced. They think the Christians the cause of every public disaster, of every affliction with which the people are visited.
If the Tiber rises as high as the city walls, if the Nile does not send its waters up over the fields, if the heavens give no rain, if there is an earthquake, if there is famine or pestilence, straightway the cry is, ‘Away with the Christians to the lions’!
Roman religion was largely what determined Romanness. Historian Joyce E. Salisbury points out that “The random nature of the persecutions between 64 and has led to much discussion about what constituted the legal basis for the persecutions, and the answer has remained somewhat elusive Barnes and Ste.
Croix both argue there was no Roman law concerning the Christians before Decius and the third century; Barnes agrees that the central fact of the juridical basis of the persecutions is Trajan’s rescript to Pliny; after Trajan’s rescript, if not before , Christianity became a crime in a special category. Other scholars trace the precedent for killing Christians to Nero.
Such feeling could “acquire the force of law”, since the ancestral customs — the Mos maiorum — were the most important source of Roman law. Bryant agrees, adding that, “This situation is strikingly illustrated in the famous correspondence between Emperor Trajan and Pliny the Younger”.
Croix asserted the governor’s special powers were all that was needed. Thus the process cognitio extra ordinem “special investigation” filled the legal void left by both code and court. All provincial governors had the right to run trials in this way as part of their imperium in the province. In cognitio extra ordinem , an accuser called a delator brought before the governor an individual to be charged with a certain offense—in this case, that of being a Christian.
This delator was prepared to act as the prosecutor for the trial, and could be rewarded with some of the accused’s property if he made an adequate case or charged with calumnia malicious prosecution if his case was insufficient. If the governor agreed to hear the case—and he was free not to—he oversaw the trial from start to finish: he heard the arguments, decided on the verdict, and passed the sentence.
More often than not, the outcome of the case was wholly subject to the governor’s personal opinion. While some tried to rely on precedent or imperial opinion where they could, as evidenced by Pliny the Younger’s letter to Trajan concerning the Christians , [43] such guidance was often unavailable.
Even if these governors had easy access to the city, they would not have found much official legal guidance on the matter of the Christians. Before the anti-Christian policies under Decius beginning in , there was no empire-wide edict against the Christians, and the only solid precedent was that set by Trajan in his reply to Pliny: the name of “Christian” alone was sufficient grounds for punishment and Christians were not to be sought out by the government. There is speculation that Christians were also condemned for contumacia —disobedience toward the magistrate, akin to the modern “contempt of court”—but the evidence on this matter is mixed.
Given the lack of guidance and distance of imperial supervision, the outcomes of the trials of Christians varied widely. Many followed Pliny’s formula: they asked if the accused individuals were Christians, gave those who answered in the affirmative a chance to recant, and offered those who denied or recanted a chance to prove their sincerity by making a sacrifice to the Roman gods and swearing by the emperor’s genius.
Those who persisted were executed. According to the Christian apologist Tertullian , some governors in Africa helped accused Christians secure acquittals or refused to bring them to trial. Christian churches and texts were to be destroyed, meeting for Christian worship was forbidden, and those Christians who refused to recant lost their legal rights.
Later, it was ordered that Christian clergy be arrested and that all inhabitants of the empire sacrifice to the gods. Still, no specific punishment was prescribed by these edicts and governors retained the leeway afforded to them by distance. When a governor was sent to a province, he was charged with the task of keeping it pacata atque quieta —settled and orderly.
Political leaders in the Roman Empire were also public cult leaders. Roman religion revolved around public ceremonies and sacrifices; personal belief was not as central an element as it is in many modern faiths. Thus while the private beliefs of Christians may have been largely immaterial to many Roman elites, this public religious practice was in their estimation critical to the social and political well-being of both the local community and the empire as a whole.
Honoring tradition in the right way — pietas — was key to stability and success. Ben-Sasson has proposed that the “Crisis under Caligula ” was the “first open break” between Rome and the Jews.
There is debate among historians over whether the Roman government simply saw Christians as a sect of Judaism prior to Nerva ‘s modification of the tax in From then on, practicing Jews paid the tax while Christians did not, providing hard evidence of an official distinction.
In the 3rd century, the Neoplatonist philosopher Porphyry wrote:. How can people not be in every way impious and atheistic who have apostatized from the customs of our ancestors through which every nation and city is sustained?
What else are they than fighters against God? Once distinguished from Judaism, Christianity was no longer seen as simply a bizarre sect of an old and venerable religion; it was a superstitio. Even so, the level of persecution experienced by any given community of Christians still depended upon how threatening the local official deemed this new superstitio to be.
Christians’ beliefs would not have endeared them to many government officials: they worshipped a convicted criminal, refused to swear by the emperor’s genius, harshly criticized Rome in their holy books, and suspiciously conducted their rites in private.
In the early third century one magistrate told Christians “I cannot bring myself so much as to listen to people who speak ill of the Roman way of religion. Persecution of the early church occurred sporadically and in localized areas from the start. The first persecution of Christians organized by the Roman government was under the emperor Nero in 64 AD after the Great Fire of Rome and took place entirely within the city of Rome.
The Edict of Serdica , issued in by the Roman emperor Galerius , officially ended the Diocletianic persecution of Christianity in the East. The early church historian Eusebius , whose works are the only source for many of these events, speaks of “countless numbers” or “myriads” having perished. Walter Bauer criticized Eusebius for this, but Robert Grant says readers were used to this kind of exaggeration as it was common in Josephus and other historians of the time.
By the mid-2nd century, mobs were willing to throw stones at Christians, perhaps motivated by rival sects. The Persecution in Lyon AD was preceded by mob violence, including assaults, robberies and stonings.
When rumor seemed about to expose his fraud, the witty essayist reports in his scathing essay. Tertullian ‘s Apologeticus of was ostensibly written in defense of persecuted Christians and addressed to Roman governors. In AD, the emperor Decius issued a decree requiring public sacrifice, a formality equivalent to a testimonial of allegiance to the emperor and the established order.
There is no evidence that the decree was intended to target Christians but was intended as a form of loyalty oath. Decius authorized roving commissions visiting the cities and villages to supervise the execution of the sacrifices and to deliver written certificates to all citizens who performed them.
Christians were often given opportunities to avoid further punishment by publicly offering sacrifices or burning incense to Roman gods, and were accused by the Romans of impiety when they refused. Refusal was punished by arrest, imprisonment, torture, and executions.
Christians fled to safe havens in the countryside and some purchased their certificates, called libelli. Several councils held at Carthage debated the extent to which the community should accept these lapsed Christians.
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